Conflict is a strong emotional reaction that can result from differing needs, values or opinions between two individuals. Unhealthy conflict can lead to irreparable rifts, resentments and breakups, but when conflict is resolved in a healthy manner, it increases your understanding of the other person, builds trust and strengthens relationships.

Conflict arises from different needs, desires, beliefs and ideas that cannot be accommodated by either party. It can also be caused by a mismatch between job descriptions and the abilities of the individual, insufficient communication and a lack of effective team management. In the workplace, conflicts often stem from a lack of clear roles or from competing for limited resources, and they can have a negative impact on productivity, morale and teamwork.

No one can avoid conflict; it’s a natural part of life. The key is to manage it effectively by recognizing the triggers and learning strategies for resolving it. Some of the most common causes of conflict in the workplace include:

A lack of communication often leads to conflict, especially when there are differing perceptions of what is expected or what happened. A simple conversation can help resolve the issue by clarifying expectations and allowing both parties to discuss their concerns.

When discussing the problem, focus on the current situation and avoid bringing up past issues or assigning blame. This will allow both parties to listen attentively and make a genuine effort to understand the other person’s perspective. If you find that you and the other person are unable to reach an agreement on the issue, it may be helpful to have a neutral facilitator assist you in finding a solution.

Negative emotional responses can also cause conflict, such as anger, fear and resentment. These feelings can inhibit good communication and prevent an open, honest dialogue. If you are experiencing these emotions, take steps to calm down before approaching the other party to talk about the issue. If possible, try to address the issue in a private location where you can both remain undisturbed for as long as necessary for a successful discussion.

As a manager, it’s your responsibility to ensure that the individuals in your group are properly trained and supported to perform their jobs. You can do this by ensuring that each employee has a clearly defined job description and by offering training on conflict resolution strategies.

When a conflict does occur, it is important to communicate with the affected individuals immediately and be aware of any repercussions that could occur as a result. Doing so will help to limit the damage and ensure that the conflict does not negatively affect other employees or the business as a whole.

Finally, it’s important to remember that when it comes to conflict, honesty is always the best policy. If you are unsure whether it is appropriate to discuss a particular issue with someone, consult your supervisor or another manager who can offer additional support. Remember that it is never a good idea to gossip or speak about others behind their back, especially when dealing with sensitive situations.

Despite the best efforts of military planners and strategists to keep their skills current, there are certain continuities in the nature of war. This is not simply a matter of practice and learning, but of human nature. We have a tendency to seek patterns and predictability in our encounters with conflict, even while acknowledging that every fight is unique. This is why seasoned soldiers can still recall the harrowing details of an individual battle, but struggle to describe the overall pattern of a campaign.

This is also why the question of what causes war remains one of the most intractable for historians. The answer largely depends on one’s philosophy about determinism and free will. Some scholars see a natural need for powerful states to use force, with their own interests and values, to prevail over those of weaker powers. Others see bellicosity and misunderstanding as major contributors to war.

Another key factor in the onset of war is the availability of resources. Early civilizations fought for control of critical foodstuffs, water, and mineral deposits that were necessary for survival, trade, and economic growth. This issue continues to be a central driver of conflict today, with territorial disputes over the control of natural resources, illicit economic gain, and global climate change.

A significant part of the conduct of war consists of calculating the relative strength and potential of opponents, whether through conventional tactics and strategy or more sophisticated espionage and intelligence operations. This calculation is sometimes formalised in doctrine or militarised as drills and procedures, but it often takes place at a more informal level through discussions between commanders, politicians, or the media.

While these calculations are essential for the conduct of war, they can also be dangerous. When they lead to a misreading of the motivations and intentions of adversaries, or the failure to consider the limits of a force’s capacity to achieve its objectives, it can trigger a war that would have been avoidable.

There are times when the calculus of war shifts dramatically, owing to a power shift or a sudden opportunity to exploit an opening. Such shifts and opportunities are often the root of long, bloody conflicts in history, from World War I to the war in Ukraine.

As the world has become increasingly crowded and complex, so too have the factors that contribute to conflict. A number of new challenges have emerged: the rise of non-state actors with international terrorist and criminal groups; a breakdown in global governance and rule of law by rogue state actors; and, for some, the loss of faith in political institutions and a belief that war is inevitable. Each of these challenges presents its own dilemmas, but they all underscore the need to rethink the nature and causes of war.

World War II, the most deadly and destructive conflict in history, began with Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. The 40 million to 50 million casualties and economic upheavals that followed made it a continuation, after an uneasy 20-year hiatus, of disputes left unresolved by World War I.

The major powers of Europe found themselves divided between the Allied Powers—France, Britain and Russia—and the Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In addition, Japan was pursuing an aggressive policy that put it on a collision course with the Allied Powers.

In the summer of 1914, political leaders and military planners hoped for a quick and decisive victory. The mobilization plans of the armies limited the scope for diplomacy. Moreover, in terms of armament, training, doctrine, discipline and fighting spirit, the German army, known as the Wehrmacht, was considered superior to the Allied forces.

On the battlefields of northern France and Belgium, attritional struggle turned the land into a lunar mud-scape of shell craters and abandoned equipment. For much of the war, the front was a stalemate, and the Allies struggled to overcome it.

In the Pacific, the US Navy severely weakens Japanese naval power. In the East, a series of strategic bombing campaigns devastates Germany. At Stalingrad, the Soviet Red Army pushes German forces back to Berlin. And in North Africa, the Allies invade Vichy French-held Morocco and Algeria to clear Axis troops from Africa. Ultimately, this led to the arrest and expulsion of Benito Mussolini and the defeat of Axis forces in Italy.